Bewildering Array of Botanical Names for Fruits and Vegetables of Ceylon

  

1. Mangoes

අඹ

Mangoes vs Mangifera indica. 

The botanical name for the common mango is Mangifera indica.

 It belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, which also includes cashews and pistachios. 

While there are other species within the Mangifera genus, Mangifera indica is the primary species cultivated worldwide for its fruits.

 

 2. Mustard Seeds

අබ ඇට

The botanical name for mustard seed depends on the type, with the most common being Brown Mustard (Brassica juncea), Black Mustard (Brassica nigra), and White/Yellow Mustard (Sinapis alba orBrassica alba).

  

3. Cinnamon

කුරුදු

The botanical name for "true" cinnamon is Cinnamomum verum, which belongs to the family Lauraceae. It is widely known as Ceylon cinnamon or Sri Lankan cinnamon, distinguished from common commercial "Cassia" cinnamon (Cinnamomum aromaticum). 

 

4. Coriander

කොට්ත්තමල්ලි

The botanical name of coriander is Coriandrum sativum.

 

 5. Black Pepper

 ගම් මිරිස්

The botanical name of black pepper is Piper nigrum.

 

6. Mint

මිංචි

 The botanical name for the mint genus is Mentha, belonging to the family Lamiaceae. While Mentha covers over 25 species, the most common types are spearmint (Mentha spicata) and peppermint (Mentha × piperita), widely used for culinary and aromatic purposes. 

 

7. Lettuce

කොළ ගෝවා

 
The botanical name of lettuce is Lactuca sativa. It belongs to the Asteraceae (daisy) family and is widely cultivated for its edible leaves. Lactuca sativa is an annual plant, commonly grown as a salad green, with many varieties including crisphead, romaine, and leaf lettuce.

  

8. Lemon Grass

සේර

The most common botanical name for lemon grass is Cymbopogon citratus, commonly known as West Indian lemon grass, which is widely used in culinary and medicinal applications. It belongs to the Poaceae family. Another variety, East Indian lemon grass, is scientifically known as Cymbopogon flexuosus. 

 

9. Kale

එළ ගෝවා

The botanical name of kale is *Brassica oleracea var. acephala. It belongs to the Brassicaceae family and is a member of the Acephala Group (meaning "headless"), as it does not form the compact central head typical of other cabbage varieties. Common types include curly kale, Tuscan/lacinato kale, and ornamental kale 

 

10. Kiwi Fruit

කිවි ෆ්රුට්

The primary botanical name for the common green kiwi fruit is

Actinidia deliciosa. It is a woody vine in the family Actinidiaceae, and is often called Chinese gooseberry. Other species, particularly the golden kiwi, are categorized under Actinidia chinensis.

 

12. Chia Seeds

චියා බීජ

The botanical name isSalvia hispanica. It belongs to the mint family, Lamiaceae.Salvia hispanica is native to central and southern Mexico and Guatemala 

 

13. Asparagus

ඇස්පරගස්

The botanical name isAsparagus officinalis.     It belongs to the family Asparagaceae. The common common names are garden asparagus, edibleasparagus, green/white asparagus.  The genus includes roughly 370 species, including ornamentals likeAsparagus setaceus (florist's fern)

 

14. Celery

සැල්දිරි

The botanical name isApium graveolens, which belongs to the Apiaceae (parsley) family. It is a herbaceous plant widely cultivated for its crisp edible stalks (petioles). The most common cultivated celery is Apium graveolens var. dulce. Other types include celeriac (A. graveolens var. rapaceum) and leaf celery (A. graveolens var. secalinum).

 

 

15. Nokhol

නෝකෝල්

The botanical name ofනෝකෝල් Knol Khol) is Brassica oleracea(Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes). It is a member of the Brassicaceae family (cabbage family), often referred to in English as Kohlrabi or German turnip.

 

16. Radish

රාබු

The botanical name  is Raphanus sativus.          It belongs to the Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae) family, which is also known as the mustard or cabbage family. Raphanus (derived from Greek for "easily reared").Sativus (meaning "cultivated"). Different cultivars includeR. sativus var. sativus (red radish),R. sativus var. longipinnatus (Daikon) andR. sativus var. niger(black radish).

 

17. Beetroot

බීට් රූට්

The botanical name isBeta vulgaris. It belongs to the Amaranthaceae family (formerly classified under Chenopodiaceae). The cultivated beetroot belongs to the subspeciesBeta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris. 

 

18. Monara Kudumbiya

මොනර කුඩුම්බිය

The botanical name of මොනර කුඩුම්බිය (Monara Kudumbiya) is Cyanthillium cinereum. It was previously known as Vernonia cinerea. Asteraceae (Sunflower family) family and the English name is little ironweed. It is a species of perennial plants known for its use in traditional medicine and is widely found in tropical Asia, including Ceylon.

 

19. Hatawariya

හතවාරිය

The primary botanical name for Hathawariya,     a medicinal herb widely used in Ceylon and known as Shatavari in Ayurveda, is Asparagus racemosus. It is a climbing plant belonging to the Asparagaceae family. Asparagus falcatus is also referred to as a variety of Hathawariya in local context. Belongs to the family Asparagaceae. A perennial climbing plant reaching 1-3 meters, featuring pine-needle-like foliage and white, fragrant flowers. Traditionally used in Ayurveda to support reproductive health, as a galactogogue (to increase breast milk production) and for treating nervous disorders. 

 

20. Kuppamenia

කුප්පමනිය

The botanical name of is Acalypha indica. It belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and is commonly referred to as Indian Acalypha, Indian Nettle, or Indian Copperleaf. It is an erect, herbaceous annual weed that grows in wastelands and along roadsides throughout the tropics. The plant is widely used in traditional medicine for treating skin problems, wounds, intestinal worms and respiratory issues like asthma. Similar to catnip, the roots of Acalypha indica are known to attract domestic cats, which is why it is called Poochamayakki (cat-attractor) in Malayalam.

 

21.Cowpea

කව්පි

Black Eyed Pea

The botanical name is Vigna unguiculata.

It belongs to the Fabaceae (legume) family, is commonly grown in warm regions, and was formerly known as Vigna sinensis.  

The Synonyms include,Vigna sinensis andDolichos unguiculatus.             

The Common Names are Cowpea, Black-eyed pea and Southern pea.

Vigna unguiculata is a multipurpose, drought-tolerant annual legume used for food, fodder, and green manure. 

 

22. Chickpeas

කඩල

The botanical nam is Cicer arietinum.

It is an annual plant belonging to the Fabaceae (legume) family, commonly referred to as garbanzo beans, Bengal gram, or simply gram. The species is widely cultivated in warm temperate and tropical areas for its nutritious edible seeds. 

23.Peanuts

රට කජු

The botanical name is Arachis hypogaea.

It belongs to the legume family, Fabaceae (or Leguminosae). The name hypogaea comes from Greek, meaning "under the earth," referring to the plant's unique habit of burying its pods to develop underground. Despite being called a nut, the peanut is technically a legume, closely related to beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Common names include groundnut, goober or monkey nut. It is widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions. Arachis hypogaea is a highly nutritious legume cultivated for its edible seeds, high protein, and oil content.Peanuts are rich in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, protein, and fiber.

 

24 .Corn

බඩ ඉගුරු

The botanical name is Zea mays.

It is a member of the grass family, Poaceae, and is often referred to as maize to distinguish it from other cereal grains. Originally domesticated in Mexico, it is a key cultivated crop worldwide. Common Names include Corn and Maize. It is a warm season annual grass that can grow between 3 to 15 feet high. 

 

25. Undu Black Gram

උඳු

The botanical name for Undu is Vigna mungo.

It belongs to the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae).

Synonyms include Phaseolus mungo and Phaseolus roxburghii. A fast-growing, erect, or trailing herb with yellow flowers and hairy pods containing black seeds. It is native to the Indian subcontinent,

 

26. Beans

බෝංචි

The botanical name of is Phaseolus vulgaris, which belongs to the family Fabaceae. While many types exist,P. vulgaris is the primary scientific class.. The common varieties include kidney, pinto, navy, French bean and green beans. Other types of beans are Phaseolus coccineus and Phaseolus lunatus. Beans are legumes with a botanical classification as the seed of a plant in the Fabaceae family.

 

27.Green Gram- Mung

මුං ඇට

The botanical name is Vigna radiata.

It belongs to the Fabaceae family and is a widely cultivated legume, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible seeds, which are often used in savoury and sweet dishes, as well as sprouts. The common names include green gram, mung bean, and moong. They are highly nutritious, providing protein, fiber and iron. It should not be confused with black gram (Vigna mungo), which is a different species. Mung or green gram is a legume botanically known as Vigna radiata, valued for its high nutritional content, including protein, fiber, and antioxidants. 

 

28 .Lentils

පරිප්පු

The botanical name is Lens culinaris.

It belongs to the Fabaceae (legume) family. It is sometimes referred to by its synonym, Lens esculenta. The plant is a self pollinating annual, known for its lens-shaped seeds. The synonyms are Lens esculenta and Ervum lens. Lentils were first domesticated in the Middle East around 5,500 BC. Lentils botanical known asLens culinarisare a nutritious legume belonging to the plant family Fabaceae and are a good source of plant based protein, fiber and complex carbohydrates.

 

29. Semolina

සෙමොලිනා

The botanical name  is Triticum turgidum.

Semolina is technically the coarsely ground endosperm of the durum wheat plant, a hard, tetraploid wheat species primarily grown in the Mediterranean region. The family is Poaceae (grass family). It is a yellow coloured wheat known for its high protein and gluten content, often referred to as "pasta wheat". It is distinct from common wheat (Triticum aestivum) which is used for bread flour. Semolina is a coarse flour made from durum wheat, known for its yellowish colour and nutty flavour.

 

30. Soyabeans

සොයා බීන්ස්

The botanical name is Glycine max.

It is a species of legume belonging to the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), which is commonly known as the bean or pea family. Native to East Asia, with a long history of cultivation, especially in China. It is an annual plant widely cultivated for its edible bean, which is used for oil and protein. While sometimes mistaken for a pulse, the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) typically classifies the soybean as an oil seed. Cowpeas are smaller, have a more earthy, nutty flavour, and are often called black eyed peas, while soybeans are larger with a milder, more neutral taste, and are frequently processed into products like tofu and tempeh.

 

31.Wheat

තිරිගු

The botanical name is Triticum aestivum.

It belongs to the Poaceae grass family and is one of the most widely cultivated cereal grains worldwide. While Triticum aestivum is the most common, other species exist, such as Triticum durum (durum wheat). Wheat is a grass with botanical features including a grain containing bran, germ, and endosperm and is botanically known as Triticum aestivum.

Cholesterol, The Truth

 

Cholesterol, The Truth

If You had been cheated by American Drug companies, please read this real Biochemistry.

Your body makes saturated fats and your body makes Cholesterol – about 2000 mg per day.

In general, cholesterol that the average American absorbs from food amounts to about 100 mg per day.

So, in theory, even reducing animal foods to zero will result in a mere 5% decrease in the total amount of cholesterol available to the blood and tissues.   In practice, such a diet is likely to deprive the body of the substrates it needs to manufacture enough of this vital substance cholesterol.

Cholesterol, like saturated fats, stands unfairly accused.

It acts as a precursor to vital corticosteroid hormones that help us deal with stress and protect  the body against heart disease and cancer. It isaprecursorto the sex hormones like androgen, testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone. It is a precursor to vitamin D, a vital fat-soluble vitamin needed for healthy bones and nervous system, proper growth, mineral metabolism, muscle tone, insulin production, reproduction and immune system function. It is the precursor to bile salts, which are vital for digestion and assimilation of fats in the diet.

Recent research shows that cholesterol acts as an antioxidant.

This is the likely explanation for the fact that cholesterol levels go up with age.

As an antioxidant, cholesterol protects us against free radical damage that leads to heart disease and cancer.

Cholesterol is the body's repair substance, manufactured in large amounts when the arteries are irritated or weak.

Blaming heart disease on high serum cholesterol levels is like blaming firemen who have come to put out a fire and not the one for started the blaze.

Cholesterol is needed for proper function of serotonin receptors in the brain.

Serotonin is the body's natural "Feel Good" chemical. This explains why low cholesterol levels have been linked to aggressive and violent behaviour, depression and suicidal tendencies.

Mother's milk is especially rich in cholesterol and contains a special enzyme that helps the baby utilise this nutrient. Babies and children need cholesterol rich foods throughout their growing years to ensure proper development of the brain and nervous system.

Reactions:  

1. Cholesterol is a vital biochemical component

2. Its body’s production far exceeds its dietary intake and independent of eating eggs.

3. Cholesterol is needed for proper function of serotonin receptors in the brain. Serotonin is the body's natural "Feel Good" chemical.

4. Its treatment with anti-cholesterol drugs causes Dementia which the American Heart Association and Drug Companies would like to hide.

5. Eating eggs is a healthy habit.

It is a class one protein in addition to supplementing vitamins.

6. Its treatment causes confusion, domestic violence, suicide and even homicide.

7. Its a vital component in the brain.

8. Its secretion parallels cortisols, the vital stress hormone of the body.

In other words it a secondary stress indicator and not a stress hormone.

9. The treatment lower cholesterol does not prolong life.

10.  Only Aspirin prolongs life in low dosage.

11. Treatment of hypertension does not prolong life but retards secondary organ damage (Heart Failure and Kidney failure

12. Human growth hormone is one that prolongs life. Unfortunately one cannot interfere with its production except regular and mild exercise.

13. Good sleep without pills is my best indicator of healthy life style. Have plenty of it but one can do that only in ones retirement.

14. Meditation may be helpful but I have a some caution about its impact on cholesterol metabolism.

Selecting a Desktop,

 

Friday, December 19, 2025

Selecting a Desktop

Selecting a Desktop, is it a Big ASK?

I am not talking about Compiz, Wayland and Tiling Window Managers. They are not at all my interests.

Yes selecting is a desktop may be a big ask, due to many reasons. 

Desktop is a Desktop and there is nothing more in it. 

It has no applications and can be compared to a dress one wears. A dress one can wear as one pleases but Desktop is Fixed one cannot change but its front end appearance.

There is a caveat here, each desktop by default has a bundle of applications that goes with it except one big application, LibreOffice which everybody try to bundle.

I prefer desktops that does not bundle LibreOffice.

REBORN OS

On that specification, I really like REBORN OS and its Gnome Desktop.

It is minimal and out of 18.5GB /root partition it leaves me 10GB to add any application I need and 4 in particular.

VLC does to take much space but number of plug in are staggering

Audacity has almost every audio format.

GIMP is fantastic for photo editing.

Blender and blender takes the most space up to 1GB in total. 

LibreOffice is a low priority for me since I use AbiWord for my book writing for ages, in fact from Microsoft Windows era.

 Let me finish with Reborn OS, I installed all of the above and a few more and like Kdenlive and KODI and I have 2.5GB left of my root partition. This is because i have also used big /var and /opt partitions.

Desktops

I have been using Gnome of Debian for ages and I have had no problems at all and i stick with it.

Out of the lot below i only like Cutefish.

I have Plasma Desktop for comparison but rarely use it. The simple reason it takes a lot of time booting. 

I want the start up brisk with line of text telling me what is going on behind before booting. Only Debian Gnome does it.

Gnome distribution is out and it has no Synaptic package manager.

The most beautiful KDE Desktop belongs to ARCH based BlueStar Linux and I have it installed in my NUC.

KDE desktop guys are still struggling and it is still RAW package stage and one cannot install it. 

I found a ARCH based KDE desktop which was sleek like Trinity Desktop but it ruined by hard disk including EFI partition. 

It is called KaOS. 

Please do not use it.

1. Plasma desktop consumed about 500MB.

2. Cutefish which I really like consumed 300MB

3. Cosmic desktop about 500MB

4. KODI about 100 to 200MB

5. Kdenlive may be 500MB or more on top of Dolphin. 

6. Cinnamon only about 50MB since it is built on top of Gnome

I did not try Budgie and MATE

7. DeepIn from China was a pain.

8.  Anduino which is Microsoft emulation of course from China and I hate the most.

Catastrophe

This peace is in evolution.

I love Google AI. 

I have been blogging for ages, Goggle AI has an instant understanding of my simple vocabulary. I use simple English and never use an English word, I do not understand. 

I have number of standard Oxford and Cambridge dictionaries and Thesaurus big and small. All of them were collected from the British Council Library. I never wanted to be an author. 

That was an accident. 

I listened to BBC Panaroma and English Test Match commentary. 

All these to improve my English and acquire typical English accent. 

It paid good when I did enter UK in late 1970s soon after Miners Strike. I did end up in Barnsley where the minors were active including Arthur Scargill. I looked after sick children of miners. 

NHS created in 1948 was equitable and a real Public Service.

This is before BUPA and Public Private Partnership (PPP) which destroyed NHS by introducing Managers brought in from Private Sector (from outside of NHS), in UK. I hated Mrs. Margret Thatcher. The Real Reason was when Ronald Reagan made her to recognize Homosexuality in UK as normal. No wonder there is a homosexual PM and the Royal family with Jimmy Savil Saga. 

5 year sentence for homosexuality before then.

I left UK in late 1980s.

Reflection of my Life at Panideniya 

This is a real reflection of our life in CEYLON at Panideniya. 

I am an Ampitiya guy and I was new to Panideniya Junction. 

It was known as a nasty place where illegal alcohol and currently the transit point of ICE or drugs to the University.

I am doing some work related to Rebirth and the guys Lionel (Bada), Suda, and Cyril Bass and Wilson Bass in Panideniya were missed in my book "Classic Personalities" at Amazon Books.

They probably had REBIRTH Connection to me in the past. All of them are gone except Cyril. 

He did not listened to me.

He underwent a major bowel surgery on wrong pretext, of course, as a training grounds for amateur surgeons. 

He is suffering and avoids me.

I did not know anybody in the Panideniya locality including Three Wheeler driver Jayaratne.

I had a rackety old Peugeot car.

They were regular visitors to our house partially built.

This is a reflection, single day, in my life at Panideniya.

Two guys the Head Bass and the Assistant were working and I was supervising them. The Budu Ge (Place to Worship Buddha) was under construction by the side of the main house.

I took the responsibility of building it. 

Footsteps to the Budu Ge was steep and there was a steep incline. My fear was that one day I fall down the steep. 

Besides, I did not have a garage to park the car and my design was to accommodate part of that steep for the garage. I had enormous problem of parking the car under a jack tree and that portion did not belong to us but to the Education Department.The Public Survey Guy who did the Survey did a shoddy job and erected a barbed fence. Half the car in our land and half the car on government land, when I parked it. I told him I am going to build a garage and till then do not complete the barbed fence. 

At least I managed to stop the gate being built. If the gate was constructed, I have to park the car on the road side. By the way, I was the only guy who had a private car in the locality. A certain Buddhist monk not known to me sent his layman Golaya, asking me to drive him to a certain function. 

I said this is a private car and I do not drive even a monk free. 

Mind you during this period there were 5 deaths including our Great Great Grandma. This monk refused to  come for the "Mathaka Vastra" ceremony for her citing that our land did not come under his preview. 

Buddha never had any perimeters.

My real antagonism to homosexual monks who ply on public transport manifested bit later. I used land a thumping knock on the head as the last passenger after monk to alight the bus.These monks stopped to ply on public transport. 

This trick, the knock on the head during the assembly we learned in school and we did not won't monks to teach in public schools.

Coming to the story the Bass and his assistant, they were laying granite stone on the side of the steps now filled up. I started with a  big retaining wall to mark the outer boundary of our land. Then I filled it up having made the rear wall of the "going to be garage" as a the solid retaining wall. 

My physics knowledge put into good effect and I never believed the workers.

There was no retaining wall on the backside.

I heard a big thud.

The earth slipped onto the mattle collection which broke the PVC pipe flooding the newly constructed pavement washing away the cement anchorage between granites.

Head Bass quickly make makeshift cement paste and started pouring it through a big PVC pipe.

Then I heard another thud.

Assistant who went to collect water from the well crashed into the well breaking the parapet wall made of bricks. I told the Head Bass do not worry it is not a deep well he won't get drowned. 

But then again I saw water seeping through the broken wall.

The worst part was I badly wanted a cup of tea. 

I kept water for only one cup.

My brother who came early made a cup of tea depriving me of the only luxury of the day. 

I put some water to boil and set fire to  the hearth.

I was woken up pump tight.

It was past 3PM and time for my regular tea in Australia.

It is for you to detect (lies in sleep) the lies from the facts from this true dream of mine.

One help, my brother was not living with us. He had already built a house in Kadugannawa.

This dream was the result of me finishing my book 'Vegetarian Saga" by 8AM. It is 400 pages in total. I missed Panic Dodum, Ambul Dodam and Naran in this book. They were added last of all. These were the favorite of my mother and I included them to finish the book. My mother lived well past 90 but she never told me her secrets of long life. 

She was not a vegan.

I listed 110 items of mostly of Sri-Lankan fruits and vegetables including Dragon Fruit and Soursop. 

My current believe having finished the book is one can survive only on vegetables. 

Before Portuguese set foot on CEYLON we were complete vegetarians. 

Only Veddha clan were hunters.

I think Kalinga and Maga introduced non vegetarian diet until they were chased out but the Hindu Culture remained ingrained in CEYLON.

I was up from 5AM.

Slept from 8AM to 3PM.

Plants and Seeds

Plants and Seeds

Live and Let Live

 

Home Garden - ගෙවතු වගාව 

අවශ්‍ය දේ 

 

1. හිරු එලිය

2. ඉඩකඩ 

3. වතුර 

4. කොකාකෝල බොතලයක් = CO2

වැදගත් ම අන්තර්ගතය වැඩි සාන්ද්‍රනයෙන් යුතු CO2

5. ලී කුඩු 

6. අමු කෙසෙල් ගෙඩි 

Amino Acids, micro ingredients and several essential sugars

7. මෝරපු පෙර අතු කැබැල්ලක් 

8. අතු කැබෙල්ල වටේ නිය පිටින් තුවාල කොට එය වට පොල් කෙදි සහ පස් ටිකක් රෙදි කැබැල්ලකින් බදින්න

වැදගත් ම කාර්යය

9. නිදිකුම්බා ඇට ටිකක්‌

නට්‍රජන් binder

10.  සුදුසු බාජනයක්

11. නිසි කළමනාකරණය සහ මුලික හරිත අධ්‍යාපනයක්

12. ඉවසීම

මාස තුනකින් ගෙදර දීම හැදුව පලතුරක්

13. නිදිකුම්බා නැති නිසා මේවා Austalia වල කරන්න බැ

14. ලොකු ලුණු හෝ  සුදළුණු හොද bacteria සහ දිලිර නාසකයක්

15. කෝමාරිකා පෙත්තක්‌

Many uses

16. එඋනත් blog කරන්න පුළුවන්

17. උදේම නගිටේනවට උත්තරයක්

18. Who says Coca Cola Company is not doing great service to humanity by concentrating freely available CO2 we exale every minute of our "Ana Pana Sati Bavanawa" of Meevanapalane Pora.

19. I have excluded Eggs here since it has many uses in the panyry.

20. We have many antibacterial agents.

Coconut oil tops the list.

Lime and Lemons

විනාකිරි or Vinegar

ලුණු සුදුලුනු 

මේස ලුනු

Acivated Charcoal

පොල්කටු අගුරු

The biggest curse is the variety of antibacterial agents Western Medicine has produced.

A few is adequate for hospital use.

21. මගේ වැදගත්ම අමු ද්‍රව්‍යය මම නොකියා  සිටිමි. 

One has to guess.

This utility is giving problems.

Editing is interfered with.

Why?
I do not know.

The long piece I had here is gone.

I am not at all worried since it was one more than my planned number of blogs.

I wanted it to be dynamic, though.

Let me forget what was there and report today's event.

A tit of lager size than normal is dominating the mulberry tree.

Even the selfish bul-bul is chased.

Details of birds will be in my book.

Now I made a reference to plight of Binntenna Vaddha's honey bee trade vandalized by corn trade.

Now I have black bees domesticated in one of our tall pillars.

They extended their colony to back side of the retaining wall.

There was activity on the other side with cement and paint work.

I begin to realise those guys sealed the entry point of the second colony.

They are all Buddhist guys with no sympathy for wild life.

The second colony left the place in good time and was making a new home in another pillar in front of our house.

They are still working in the new home.

The guys in Hantana are setting fire and catching the wild rabbits.

This is perennial occurrence.

I should concentrate on seeds I have collected


Topics

1. Mulberry seeds

2. Coriander seeds

3. Grapes seeds

4. Sour sop seeds

5. Butter fruit seeds

6. Grass seeds

7. Orchid seeds

8. Palm seeds

9. Jack fruit seeds

10. Mango fruits

11. Corn seeds

12. Barely seeds

13. Banana seeds

14.  Wali Anoda

15. Aralu seeds

16. Bulu seeds

17. Nellie seeds

18. Coconut

19. Cadju nuts

20. Cocoa nuts

21. Paw paw seed

22. Rubber seeds

23. Jam Pets seeds

24. Castor seeds

25. Kudu Daula seeds

26. Hora seeds

27. Areca nuts

28. Coriander seeds

29. Butter fruit seeds

30. Mustard seeds

31. Tomato seeds

32. Pomegranate seeds

33. Grape fruit seeds

34.Orange seeds

35.Lemon seeds

36.Lime seeds

37. Guava seeds

38. Brinjal seeds

39. Bitter gaurd seeds

40. Ela Buru seeds

41. Tibbotu seeds

42. Batu seeds

43. Wam botu seeds or brinjal

44. Mulberry fruits

45. Jam or cherry tomato seeds

46. Paddy seeds

47. Palm seeds

48. Soursop seeds

49. Amberalla fruits and seeds

50. Watakka or pumpkin seeds

51. Melon seeds

52. Pitawakka seeds

53. Pera seeds

54. 

Palm seeds

55.





1. Kudu Daula

2. Iramusu

3. Thiththiri

4. Kaladuru

5. Iriveriya

6. Weniwel

7. Rasa Kinda

8. Coriander

9. Cinnamon

10. Cardamon

11. Castor oil

12. Mimosa Pudica

13. Ginger

14. Inguru piyalie

15. Bay leaves

16. Old spice

17. Savandara

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23. 
24. 

25.

Citric Acid or Kreb Cycle and Vitamin C

 How Vitamin c is produced in the plant kingdom by AI

Vitamin C (l-ascorbic acid or ASC) is produced in the plant kingdom primarily through the Smirnoff–Wheeler pathway (also known as the D-mannose/L-galactose pathway), a process where D-glucose is converted into L-ascorbate without carbon inversion. This pathway is the predominant route in vascular plants, mosses, and green algae. 
 

1. The Smirnoff–Wheeler Pathway (Primary Route)
This pathway involves a series of enzymatic steps, most of which take place in the cytosol, with the final step occurring in the mitochondria: 
 

Initial Steps (Cytosol): 

D-mannose-6-phosphate is converted into GDP-D-mannose. 

Epimerization: 

GDP-D-mannose is converted to GDP-L-galactose by GDP-D-mannose 3′,5′-epimerase (GME).
    

Dedicated Step: 

GDP-L-galactose phosphorylase (GGP), encoded by VTC2 and VTC5 genes, converts GDP-L-galactose into L-galactose-1-phosphate. 

This is the key regulatory step (bottleneck).
    

Phosphatase Activity: 

L-galactose-1-phosphate is converted to L-galactose by L-galactose-1-phosphate phosphatase (GPP), often encoded by VTC4.
    

Oxidation: 

L-galactose is oxidized to L-galactono-1,4-lactone by L-galactose dehydrogenase (GDH).
    

Final Step (Mitochondria): 

L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GLDH) converts L-galactono-1,4-lactone into L-ascorbate (Vitamin C). 

Unlike animals, this plant process does not produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). 

2. Alternative Biosynthetic Pathways
While the Smirnoff–Wheeler pathway is dominant, plants possess alternative, often minor or context-specific, routes: 

    Galacturonate Pathway (Salvage Pathway): Used mainly during fruit ripening (e.g., strawberry, tomato), this pathway breaks down cell wall pectin to produce D-galacturonate, which is converted to L-galactonate and then to L-galactono-1,4-lactone.
    Myoinositol Pathway: Converts myoinositol to D-glucuronate, eventually forming L-gulono-1,4-lactone.
    Gulose Pathway: A side-branch of the GME step that produces GDP-L-gulose, leading to L-gulono-1,4-lactone. 

3. Regulation of Production
Plant vitamin C production is tightly regulated to meet metabolic needs without creating toxic over-accumulation: 

    Light-Dependent: Light increases Vitamin C levels by inducing the expression of genes like GGP, GME, and GLDH.
    Feedback Control: If Vitamin C levels are high, GGP translation is inhibited by a non-canonical upstream open reading frame (uORF) in the VTC2 gene, acting as a feedback mechanism.
    Stress Responses: Under stress conditions (high light, drought), plants increase Vitamin C production to function as an antioxidant, with levels rising significantly. 

4. AI and Biotechnology in Vitamin C Research
AI and synthetic biology are being used to enhance vitamin C content in crops: 

    Metabolic Engineering: Overexpression of the GGP gene (using kiwifruit or acerola genes) has successfully increased vitamin C content by up to six-fold in tomatoes and other crops.
    uORF Editing: AI-assisted genetic editing of the uORF in the GGP gene, which removes the feedback inhibition, has been used to create transgene-free plants with 150% higher vitamin C and increased stress tolerance.
    Predictive Breeding: AI is used to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and gene clusters (e.g., GGP1 in apples) associated with high vitamin C for breeding purposes.

Last Updated on October 22, 2025 by Muhamed Elmesery

You’ve probably heard the phrase Krebs cycle thrown around before. If you’re at all interested in biology, general science, etc. Then you know that the Krebs cycle has a vital role inside our bodies. But what exactly is it? Why does it deserve such an important name? You know what I’m talking about — The Krebs Cycle.

The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that help break down and release energy stored in food. The Krebs cycle is also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or the citric acid cycle. The Krebs cycle is often considered to be the central hub of cellular metabolism, performing many important biochemical reactions that ultimately produce ATP.

This article takes a closer look at the Krebs cycle steps, how it works, what is the purpose of it, its diagram, also where does Krebs cycle occur, its products and more. Read our article and get all your questions answered with step by step explanations.

The Krebs Cycle

Table of Contents

   What Is the Krebs Cycle?

   Where Does the Krebs Cycle Take Place?

   The Main Purpose of Krebs Cycle

   Krebs Cycle Diagram

   Krebs Cycle Steps

       Step 1 ( Citrate Formation)

       Step 2 ( Citrate Isomers Formation)

       Step 3 ( Isocitrate decarboxylation and oxidation)

       Step 4 ( Succinyl-CoA Formation)

       Step 5 ( GTP Production)

         Step 6 (Fumarate Formation)

       Step 7 ( Malate Formation)

       Step 8 (Oxaloacetate Formation)

   Krebs Cycle Products

    Krebs Cycle Equation (Krebs cycle formula)

    The Role of Enzymes in Krebs Cycle

   Krebs Cycle Function

   Regulation of Krebs Cycle

   Fast Facts about Krebs Cycle

    Explore the Krebs Cycle Online: Krebs Cycle Virtual Lab

   Krebs Cycle Demystified: Top Questions Explored!

       What is the Krebs cycle in simple terms?

       What are the 8 steps of the TCA cycle?

       How many ATP are produced in the Krebs cycle?

       What is the difference between the glycolysis and the Krebs cycle?

       Why is the Krebs cycle considered aerobic?

       What is the primary purpose of the Krebs cycle?

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What Is the Krebs Cycle?

The Krebs cycle definition is a sequence of chemical reactions that occur in the body. It is none of the most vital Metabolic Pathways that starts with the intake of food, which is broken down into small molecules by the stomach and intestines. These molecules are then absorbed by the body through the small intestines and transported to the liver via the bloodstream. In the liver, the molecules are broken down further into smaller pieces called amino acids.

In the next step of the cycle, these amino acids are converted into glucose through a series of chemical reactions called phosphorylation. Then, the glucose enters the main cells of the body and can be used for energy or can be stored as glycogen for later use. When the body needs more energy, it stores the excess glucose as glycogen.

Glycogen is a form of starch stored in the liver and muscles that is used by the body for energy during periods of fasting or when no food is eaten for an extended period of time. If the body has excess energy after using up its supply of glycogen, it can then break down the remaining stored fat into fatty acids.

the mitochondrial matrix

Where Does the Krebs Cycle Take Place?

The Krebs cycle takes place exactly in (the mitochondrial matrix) and converts mitochondrial pyruvate into carbon dioxide and water. The mitochondrial matrix is a dense solution that surrounds the crests of the mitochondria. This matrix contains water, all the needed enzymes, coenzymes, and phosphates which are necessary for the Krebs cycle reactions.

The Main Purpose of Krebs Cycle

Briefly the purpose of the Krebs cycle is to combine carbon dioxide and water using energy from the electron transport chain. The resulting molecules are then used for the purposes of Energy Production in Cells and building cells.

electron transport chain

We can also say that the purpose of the Krebs cycle is to help cells convert glucose into energy and provide ATP, which is one unit of energy. The beginning of the end-products are very high energy and end up being used as ATP in your cells.

Note: ATP or adenosine triphosphate is a substance found in all living cells that is used to provide energy for many metabolic processes and also used for making RNA molecules. It is considered as a coenzyme that works with many enzymes inside our bodies.

ATP or adenosine triphosphate structure

Glucose is a simple sugar that is found in most foods. Cells use glucose to make energy, which they need to do everything from stay alive to carrying out important chemical reactions.

Krebs Cycle Diagram

The following diagram is Krebs cycle diagram in detail, showing the different steps, structures of the Intermediates of Krebs Cycle, the enzymes and coenzymes which catalyze each step in the TCA Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle).

Krebs Cycle Diagram

Krebs Cycle Steps

Now we will get all your questions answered with step by step explanations of Krebs cycle.

TCA Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle) begins by breaking down pyruvate and releasing CO2 as a byproduct. This carbon can then enter different pathways depending on what type of molecule it bonds with, either O2 or NAD+. The results of this reaction are used for ATP Generation as well as for acetyl CoA formation.

Look at the previous diagram and check the following steps!

Kreps cycle occurs over eight steps:

Step 1 ( Citrate Formation)

 Acetyl CoA reacts with oxaloacetate in the presence of citrate synthase enzyme to form citrate or citric acid.

Step 2 ( Citrate Isomers Formation)

In the second step, citric acid is first converted to an intermediate compound called cis-aconitate, then converted to isocitrate which is an isomer of citrate in the presence of aconitase enzyme.

Step 3 ( Isocitrate decarboxylation and oxidation)

In the third step, Isocitrate compound is oxidized to form alpha-ketoglutarate in the presence of isocitrate dehydrogenase enzyme. As a result of this step, carbon dioxide is released (Decarboxylation Reactions)and a NADH molecule is formed (NADH Production).

Step 4 ( Succinyl-CoA Formation)

In the fourth step, the Alpha-ketoglutarate compound is oxidized and binds to coenzyme A, to form succinyl CoA in the presence of a-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase enzyme which liberates:

   Second molecule of NADH.

   Carbon dioxide.

   Proton.

Step 5 ( GTP Production)

In the fifth step, Succinyl CoA is converted to succinate compound in the presence of Succinyl-CoA synthetase enzyme which forms a molecule of GTP through the process of GDP phosphorylation. So we can consider that the result of this step is releasing GTP molecules, the Coenzyme A and also the formation of succinate.

GTP structure

 Step 6 (Fumarate Formation)

In the sixth step, succinate compound is oxidized and converted to fumarate in the presence of Succinate Dehydrogenase enzyme. In this step, FADH₂ molecule is produced (FADH2 Production).

Step 7 ( Malate Formation)

In the seventh step, Fumarate compound is converted to malate in the presence of fumarase enzyme. In this step, H2O is incorporated to form the structure of the final product (malate) so we can consider fumarase enzyme as hydrolase enzyme.

Step 8 (Oxaloacetate Formation)

In the eighth and final step, Malate compound is converted to oxaloacetate in the presence of malate Dehydrogenase enzyme. Here the NADH molecule no.3 in the cycle is produced.

We will explain the role of each enzyme in the following paragraphs.

Krebs Cycle Products

The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that allow cells to use energy from carbohydrates. The cycle starts with the entry of glucose into the cell. This energy is used for different cellular processes such as synthesizing proteins and membranes and sustaining cellular functions.

It  produces carbon dioxide and water as waste products. In order to use the energy from glucose for these processes, it has to be converted into another type of energy—in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This is the main form of energy storage in the cell cycle regulation and provides the cells with the energy they need to carry out various processes. The energy produced by the conversion of glucose into ATP is called cellular respiration. The Krebs cycle is an essential part of the process of cellular respiration.

The Krebs cycle also produces NADH and FADH₂ molecules, which are used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP. It also produces two carbon dioxide molecules per turn (one CO2 is produced when 1 of the 4 carbons in the citric acid molecule is oxidized). The cycle produces 3 hydrogen ions (H+) during each turn.

So we can say that the net of each Krebs cycle products are:

   3 NADH molecules.

   1 FADH₂ molecule.

   1 GTP molecule.

   2 molecules of CO2 (Carbon Dioxide Release).

   3 (H+) hydrogen ions.

Krebs Cycle Products

Note: In the case of 1 molecule of glucose, there are 2 acetyl-CoA molecules entering the Krebs cycle, so the total energy (products of the Krebs cycle) are duplicated into 6 NADH molecules /2 FADH₂ molecules / 2GTP molecules.

In the electron transport chain, each NADH molecule gives 2-3 ATPs and each FADH2 molecule forms 2 ATPs on oxidation

Krebs Cycle Equation (Krebs cycle formula)

The following equation is the total Krebs cycle equation or the Krebs cycle formula which describes all the results compound:

2 acetyl groups + 6 NAD+ + 2 FAD + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 2 H20————– 4CO2 + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2ATP + 2 CoA

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How Much ATP does the Krebs Cycle Produce?

The short answer is one molecule of ATP \ pyruvate molecule

Each molecule of pyruvate  enters citric acid cycle, forms one ATP molecule when succinyl-CoA converts to succinate in the presence of  Succinyl CoA synthetase enzyme. and there are 2 molecules of pyruvate results from the process of (one glucose) glycolysis.

So, we will have 2 molecules of ATP by the end of Krebs cycle.

The Role of Enzymes in Krebs Cycle

Enzymes, which are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, are key players in the Krebs cycle and their role is essential for oxidative phosphorylation to occur. They regulate all the steps of the cycle.

The most well-known enzymes that are involved in the Krebs cycle:

   Citrate synthase enzyme

Citrate synthase removes the acetyl group and then adds it to oxaloacetate compound to form citric acid.

   Aconitase enzyme

Aconitase transfers an oxygen atom to make a more reactive molecule of isocitrate.

   Isocitrate dehydrogenase enzyme

Isocitrate dehydrogenase removes only one carbon atom to form carbon dioxide CO2 and also transfers the electrons to the NADH molecule.

   Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase enzyme

Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase removes only one carbon atom to form carbon dioxide CO2, also transfers the electrons to NADH molecule and the molecule remaining part is connected to coenzyme A.

   Succinyl-CoA synthetase enzyme

Because the bond between coenzyme A and succinate is unstable and needed to provide the energy for building ATP molecule, the succinyl-CoA synthetase enzyme is used to create the GTP molecule in the reaction (fifth step).

   Succinate Dehydrogenase enzyme

Succinate dehydrogenase plays a role in the electron transport chain by extracting the atoms of hydrogen from succinate compounds and transferring them to the FAD molecule which acts as carrier.

   Fumarase enzyme

Fumarase adds a molecule of water to the molecule to prepare it for the last step of citric acid cycle.

   Malate dehydrogenase enzyme

Malate dehydrogenase is used in the final step for oxaloacetate recreation and electrons transferring to NADH by converting malate compound to oxaloacetate compound.

Citric Acid or Krebs Cycle 

Krebs Cycle Function

Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle plays a very important role in the production of energy and the molecules biosynthesis processes. The cycle ends the process of sugar-breaking which began in glycolysis and fuels the ATP production. It is also vital in the biosynthetic reactions by providing intermediates compounds that are used to synthesize important biological molecules like the amino acids. The cycle provides the electrons that fuel the oxidative phosphorylation process which is considered as the major source of energy and ATP.

Regulation of Krebs Cycle

The TCA Cycle is regulated by many factors:

Enzymes, there are 3 major dehydrogenase enzymes are used for regulation in Krebs pathway:

   Pyruvate Dehydrogenase.

   Isocitrate Dehydrogenase.

   Alpha Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase.

Metabolites, such as NADH which inhibits the majority of the enzymes found in the Krebs cycle and can slow and stop the process of glycolysis before the release of too much energy by the process of gluconeogenesis.

Another important regulator is citrate, which inhibits phosphofructokinase and is considered as a very vital enzyme in the glycolysis process. Citrate decreases the production of pyruvate and therefore acetyl-CoA (an important precursor for fat synthesis.)

Calcium also plays a role in the regulation of the citric acid cycle as it stimulates the link reaction and then accelerates the cycle.

Beginning of Life on Earth

Beginning of Life on Earth

1. The transfer from abiotic to biotic was not dramatic but a series of small steps.

2. Symbiosis was a fact of biotic life.

3. Parasitism was a very late development.

4. Sexual development was an accident in nature.

5. Plant life was the beginning.

6. Animal life or actively moving life was much later development.

7. Virus contribution except for human devastation is an aberration!

Now I start at a point of Oxygen Generation.

Chlorophyll was the beginning.

It's derivative the haemoglobin was the engine for animal life.

Cytochrome system and  transfer of electrons in a series of steps was a miracle.

Their assembly into mitochondria was a significant step.

Mitochondria are probably prokaryotes who became symbiotic (that was my own theory collaborated by Marie Maguire).

How cell membrane formed is a mystery.

Formation of various sugars and sugar cell wall formation predated cell membrane formation.

Formation of fatty acids with even number chain is a significant step.

Universal Citric Acid Cycle is a mystery.

Ribosome formation was a very late development leave alone protein synthesis.

RNA to DNA was much contested arena.

Viruses are very late bystander vestiges but important in the current context of laboratory made biological.weapons.

Putting all these into a coherent system is extremely difficult.

I leave it at that point.

Wild Breadfruit - Wal Del

This posted on behalf of Jayarathna Pathiraarachchi.

I did not know this tree existed but I have not tasted its fruit cooked. 

Even, imported Del tree is becoming extinct. We had a Del tree in front of our house and it was felled to make way to park a car. 

Nobody opposed.

I should add the following to this list.

1. Kathuru Murunga

2. Murunga

3. Niwithie or water cabbage 

4. Kohila

5. Kankun

6. Mukunu Wanna

The last is the best of the lot. It has all the essential amino acids and one need not eat chicken or kill a bird in that process.

Wild Breadfruit - Wal Del

වල් දෙල්

The "wild breadfruit of Ceylon" is scientifically known as Artocarpus nobilis, is a tree endemic to Ceylon that produces a popular, nutritious, edible fruit called Ceylon breadfruit or Del in Sinhala. Used in Ayurveda and folk medicine for conditions like diarrhoea, asthma, wound healing and contains various beneficial phytochemicals. The fruit is typically cooked, often by boiling or roasting and is a staple food source, while the tree's latex can cause skin irritation. Common names are Ceylon breadfruit, Wal-del, Baedi-del, and Hingala-del. Endemic to the wet lowland forests of southwestern Ceylon.

A large tree, sometimes growing up to              25 meters tall, with large, bright green leaves and a distinctively structured fruit. The fruit and seeds are edible and are usually cooked, such as by boiling or roasting. The fruit is rich in nutrients, including starch, fiber, vitamin C, and potassium. Its extracts contain various beneficial compounds like flavanones, flavonoids, and triterpenoids, which contribute to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.

It provides valuable timber and that has caused its own demise. Artocarpus nobilis is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. International Union for Conservation of Nature is a global environmental network.